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'''Fractional-reserve banking''' is the banking practice in which [[bank]]s keep only a '''fraction''' of their deposits in [[bank reserves|reserve]] (as cash and other highly liquid assets) and lend out the remainder, while maintaining the simultaneous obligation to redeem all deposits immediately upon demand. Its a banking system that keeps only a fraction of funds on hand and lends out the remainder.<ref>{{cite book
#redirect [[Fractional reserve banking]]
  | last = Sullivan
  | first = arthur
  | authorlink = Arthur O' Sullivan
  | coauthors = Steven M. Sheffrin
  | title = Economics: Principles in action
  | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall
  | date = 2003
  | location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
  | pages = 551
  | url = http://www.pearsonschool.com/index.cfm?locator=PSZ3R9&PMDbSiteId=2781&PMDbSolutionId=6724&PMDbCategoryId=&PMDbProgramId=12881&level=4
  | doi =
  | id =
  | isbn = 0-13-063085-3}}</ref> This practice is universal in modern banking.<ref>''The Bank Credit Analysis Handbook: A Guide for Analysts, Bankers and Investors'' by Jonathan Golin.  Publisher: John Wiley & Sons (August 10, 2001).  ISBN-10: 0471842176  ISBN-13: 978-0471842170</ref><ref>[http://www.bankintroductions.com/definition.html Bankintroductions.com - Economic Definitions]</ref>
 
==History==
{{Cleanup|section|date=October 2008}}
Prior to the 1800s, savers looking to keep their valuables in safekeeping depositories deposited [[gold coin]]s and [[silver coin]]s at [[goldsmith]]s, receiving in turn a [[Promissory note|note]] for their [[deposit account|deposit]] (''see [[Bank of Amsterdam]]''). Once these notes became a trusted [[medium of exchange]] an early form of [[paper money]] was born, in the form of the goldsmiths' notes.<ref name="moneyfacts">{{cite book
|last=United States. Congress. House. Banking and Currency Committee.
|title=Money facts; 169 questions and answers on money- a supplement to A Primer on Money, with index, Subcommittee on Domestic Finance ... 1964.
|location=Washington D.C.
|year=1964
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9DlDs-o0arUC&q=goldsmiths&pgis=1#search
}}</ref>
 
As the notes were used directly in [[trade]], the goldsmiths observed that people would not usually redeem all their notes at the same time, and saw the opportunity to invest coin reserves in interest-bearing loans and bills. This left the goldsmiths with more notes on issue than reserves to pay them with. This generated [[income]]&mdash;a process that altered their role from passive guardians of [[bullion]] charging fees for safe storage, to interest-paying and earning banks.  Fractional-reserve banking was born.
 
However, if [[creditor]]s (note holders of gold originally deposited) lost faith in the ability of a bank to redeem (pay) their notes, many would try to redeem their notes at the same time. If in response a bank could not raise enough funds by calling in loans or selling bills, it either went into [[insolvency]] or defaulted on its notes. Such a situation is called a ''[[bank run]]'' and caused the demise of many early banks.<ref name="moneyfacts"/>
 
==Benefits of fractional reserve banking==
According to the United States' [[Federal Reserve]], fractional reserve banking provides benefits to the economy and the banking system:
:The fact that banks are required to keep on hand only a fraction of the funds deposited with them is a function of the banking business. Banks borrow funds from their depositors (those with savings) and in turn lend those funds to the banks’ borrowers (those in need of funds). Banks make money by charging borrowers more for a loan (a higher percentage interest rate) than is paid to depositors for use of their money. If banks did not lend out their available funds after meeting their reserve requirements, depositors might have to pay banks to provide safekeeping services for their money. For the economy and the banking system as a whole, the practice of keeping only a fraction of deposits on hand has an important cumulative effect. Referred to as the fractional reserve system, it permits the banking system to create money.<ref name="purpose">Page 57 of 'The FED today', a publication on an educational site affiliated with the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City) designed to educate people on the history and purpose of the United States Federal Reserve system.  http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/fed101/fedtoday/FedTodayAll.pdf</ref>
 
According to many economists, fractional reserve banking benefits the economy by providing regulators with powerful tools for manipulating the money supply, interest rates, and government debt creation. From a [[Keynesian]] point of view this debt creation provides governments with much greater latitude to stimulate the economy through government spending. Government debt creation through fractional reserve banking has historically provided most of a central bank's secondary tier reserves (e.g. U.S. national and state banks during much of the 1800s), allowing a third tier of commercial country banks to inflate the money supply even further, ultimately resulting in additional liquidity, which many see as essential to a healthy economy.
 
However, some economists argue that the benefits of fractional reserve banking are much more limited, serving short term banking interests at the expense of public interests. From this point of view the banks benefit with a legalized monopoly over the creation of new money, which they lend for additional profits, at the cost of inherent insolvency and attendant risk of bank runs. The public benefits in potentially lowered interest rates and banking fees at the cost of inherent bank insolvency, the confusion of deposit banking with loan banking, monetary inflation, price inflation, malinvestment, and the formation or exacerbation of the business cycle.<ref name="mobfractionalreserve">{{cite web |url=http://mises.org/Books/mysteryofbanking.pdf|format=PDF|title=The Mystery of Banking|author=Rothbard, Murray|date=1926-95 |publisher=The Ludwig von Mises Institute}} pp 75-110</ref>
 
==How it works==
In most legal systems, a demand deposit at a bank (e.g. a chequeing or savings account) or banknote issued by a bank (bank-issued paper money) is essentially a loan to the bank (instead of a [[bailment]]), repayable on demand, which the bank uses to finance its investments in loans and interest bearing securities. The nature of fractional-reserve banking is that there is only a fraction of cash reserves available at the bank needed to repay all of  the demand deposits and banknotes issued. This typically results when the bank creates new money and lends it out, keeping a fraction of the total money as a reserve. The reason people deposit funds at a bank or hold banknotes issued by a bank is to store savings in the form of a demand claim on the bank.  One important aspect of fractional-reserve banking is that the note holders and depositors still have a claim to repayment of their funds on demand even though the funds are already largely invested by the bank in interest bearing loans and securities.<ref>Committee on Finance and Industry 1931(Macmillan Report)on bankers desire to complicate banking issues."The economic experts have evolved a highly technical vocabulary of their own and in their zeal for precision are distrustful, if not derisive of any attempts to popularise their science."</ref>
 
For instance, you could ask to withdraw all the money in your checking account at any time.  If all the depositors of a bank did that at the same time (a [[bank run]]), the bank could be in trouble. Due to the practice of [[central banking]] this is a rare event today, but there are some recent examples. The following banks were already in trouble due to the subprime crisis using leverage beyond safe means. They became insolvent which sparked a run on them.  The [[Northern Rock#Subprime_mortgage_crisis_and_nationalisation|Northern Rock crisis]] of 2007 in the United Kingdom is an example of such an event. The collapse of [[Washington Mutual]] bank in September 2008, the largest bank failure in history, was an example of a "silent run" on the bank, where depositors removed vast sums of money from the bank through electronic transfer{{Fact|date=January 2009}}.
 
However, in the absence of rare events triggering [[bank run]]s, fractional-reserve banking usually functions without bank runs because at any one time relatively few "at call" depositors will make cash withdrawals simultaneously compared to the total amount on deposit, and a cash reserve can be maintained as a "buffer" to deal with the normal cash demands from depositors seeking withdrawals. In addition, in a normal economic environment where net lending is positive and cash is being injected into the banking system by the [[central bank]], new cash deposits are steadily being created.
 
If the net redemption demands are unusually large at any one time, the bank will run low on cash reserves and will be forced to raise new funds from additional borrowings (e.g. by borrowing from the [[money market]] or using [[Line of credit|lines of credit]] held with other banks), and/or sell assets, and/or call in short-term loans to avoid running out of reserves and defaulting on its obligations. If creditors are afraid that the bank is running out of cash or is insolvent, they have an incentive to redeem their deposits as soon as possible before other depositors access the remaining cash reserves before they do, triggering a cascading crisis that can result in a full-scale [[bank run]].
 
When combined with the creation of new money, as is typically done, fractional reserve banking affects the total supply of money. Fractionally reserved banks tend to remain fully leveraged and therefore monetary inflation is far more common than monetary deflation. The effect that fractional reserve banking has on the money supply has far-reaching ramifications for monetary inflation, price inflation, interest rates, and the business cycle.<ref name="mobfractionalreserve"/>
 
===Money creation===
 
Money can be created in a variety of ways in a fractional reserve banking system. In the simplest example, upon receiving a deposit a single bank can immediately create and loan out money at the reserve ratio. However, this approach has such significant drawbacks that almost all modern banking systems implement a carefully synchronized approach to monetary inflation.<ref name="mobfractionalreserve2">{{cite web |url=http://mises.org/Books/mysteryofbanking.pdf|format=PDF|title=The Mystery of Banking|author=Rothbard, Murray|date=1926-95 |publisher=The Ludwig von Mises Institute}}</ref>
 
====A Simple Example - A Single Bank====
 
The simplest example of fractionally reserved banking in practice is a monetary system consisting of a single bank. However, this single bank example is not to be taken as an approximation of the system as it entirely ignores interest - the vital driving force of the system.
For example, a bank may be fractionally reserved at a 1:5 ratio (or 20%), which means it has $1 in reserve for every $4 it has loaned out. When a depositor deposits $100 into the bank ''under contract that the money can be withdrawn at any time'', the bank could implement fractional reserve banking by either 1) loaning $80 of the original $100 without creating any more money, or 2) creating an additional $400 out of thin air and loaning out that newly created $400. In the first case there would be a total of $100 (the original deposit), whereas in the second case the money supply would be inflated to a total of $500. In either case there is a legal claim on the reserves that are far beyond what a bank could satisfy if all claims were made at the same time. The depositor can legally withdraw his funds at any time, and the recipient of the loan can also withdraw the money he has been lent. If both claims are made at the same time, then in case 1 the bank is short $80, and in case 2 the bank is short $400. However, if there is only one bank, then the loan recipient will almost certainly purchase something from another client of the bank, and no withdrawal will be necessary because there will only be a book-keeping transfer from one account to another. Therefore, when there is only one bank in the system, this simple form of fractional reserve banking can function until and unless a bank run occurs.
 
The problem with this simple example comes when many banks are introduced. In the normal course of business (in other words, not a bank run) the loan recipient from Bank A will purchase something from a client of another bank, Bank B, by writing out a check against Bank A. When the client of Bank B deposits the check, Bank B will demand payment from Bank A. If A is fractionally reserved at 5:1, then Bank A is at an unacceptably high risk for not having sufficient reserves to satisfy the demand. For example, using the example above, if the loan recipient from Bank A pays $400 for a new tv at Walmart then Walmart will deposit the check into Bank B. Bank B will then ask Bank A for $400, but Bank A only has $100 reserves and is therefore unable to satisfy the demand. One way to solve this problem is for Bank A and Bank B to both inflate at the same rate along with implementing a check clearing system that mitigates the daily transfer demands down to only the difference between total demands of Bank A on Bank B and Bank B on Bank A. If both banks are inflating at the same rate then, on average, they will be making claims on each other that are of similar magnitude. Of course, there is probably a Bank C and D and E in the system as well, so the problem is only truly solved as long as all banks are within the system. All banks must create money at the same rate, and that rate must be much more moderate. This typically means that any one bank alone cannot create $400 for $100. The inflation of $100 into $500 still occurs, but the mechanism by which it occurs is much more complicated. It is an inflation across the whole banking system rather than across a single bank working alone.
 
====Fractional Reserve Banking With a Central Bank====
 
Modern central banking allows multiple banks to practice fractional reserve banking with inter-bank business transactions without risking bankruptcy. The process of fractional-reserve banking has a cumulative effect of money creation by banks.<ref name="purpose"/>
 
There are two types of money in a fractional-reserve banking system operating with a central bank:<ref name="bis">Bank for International Settlements - The Role of Central Bank Money in Payment Systems. See page 9, titled, "The coexistence of central and commercial bank monies: multiple issuers, one currency": http://www.bis.org/publ/cpss55.pdf
A quick quote in reference to the 2 different types of money is listed on page 3.  It is the first sentence of the document:
:"Contemporary monetary systems are based on the mutually reinforcing roles of central bank money and commercial bank monies."</ref><ref name="ecb">European Central Bank - Domestic payments in Euroland: commercial and central bank money:
http://www.ecb.int/press/key/date/2000/html/sp001109_2.en.html  One quote from the article referencing the two types of money:
:"At the beginning of the 20th almost the totality of retail payments were made in central bank money. Over time, this monopoly came to be shared with commercial banks, when deposits and their transfer via cheques and giros became widely accepted. Banknotes and commercial bank money became fully interchangeable payment media that customers could use according to their needs. While transaction costs in commercial bank money were shrinking, cashless payment instruments became increasingly used, at the expense of banknotes"</ref><ref>Macmillan report 1931 account of how fractional banking works http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&id=EkUTaZofJYEC&dq=British+Parliamentary+reports+on+international+finance&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=kHxssmPNow&sig=UyopnsiJSHwk152davCIyQAMVdw&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA34,M1</ref>
#'''central bank money''' (money created or adopted by the central bank regardless of its form (precious metals, commodity certificates, banknotes, coins, electronic money loaned to commercial banks, or anything else the central bank chooses as its form of money)
#'''commercial bank money''' (money created through loans in the banking system) - sometimes referred to as '''chequebook money'''<ref>Chicago Fed - Our Central Bank: http://www.chicagofed.org/consumer_information/the_fed_our_central_bank.cfm
:the reference is found in the "Money Manager" section: Thus fractional can create money/money as numbers out of thin air, as long as no run is made on the bank at the same time.
::"the Fed works to control money at its source by affecting the ability of financial institutions to "create" chequebook money through loans or investments. The control lever that the Fed uses in this process is the "reserves" that banks and thrifts must hold."</ref>
 
When a loan is funded with central bank money, new commercial bank money is created.  As a loan is paid back, the commercial bank money disappears from existence.
 
The table below displays how loans are funded and how the money supply is affected.  It also shows how central bank money is used to create commercial bank money from an initial deposit of $100 of central bank money. In the example, the initial deposit is lent out 10 times with a fractional-reserve rate of 20% to ultimately create $400 of commercial bank money. Each bank involved in this process creates new commercial bank money on only a portion of the original deposit of central bank money, ensuring that it always has enough reserves on hand to meet the inter-bank business demands, and also ensuring that multiple banks participate in the inflation process so that all banks are inflating at the same rate.
 
The process begins when an initial $100 deposit of central bank money is made into Bank A. Bank A then takes 20 percent of it, or $20, and sets it aside as reserves and then loans out the remaining 80 percent, or $80.  At this point there is actually a total of $180 in the system, not $100; because the bank has loaned out $80 of the central bank money, kept $20 of central bank money in reserve, and substituted a newly created $80 IOU claim for the depositor that ''acts equivalent to and can be implicitly redeemed for'' central bank money (the depositor can transfer it to another account, write a check on it, etc.). These checkbook IOUs are termed '''commercial bank money''' and are simply recorded in a bank's register as an asset (specifically, an IOU from the loan recipient) next to the reserves. From a depositor's perspective, commercial money ''is'' central bank money--it's impossible to tell the two forms of money apart until a bank run happens (at which time everyone wants central bank money). At this point Bank A still holds $100 of central bank money reserves on its books, but $80 of those reserves are soon going to be needed to satisfy the loan recipient. The loan recipient soon spends the $80.  The receiver of that $80 then deposits it into Bank B. Bank B demands $80 of central bank money be delivered from Bank A to Bank B in satisfaction of the loan recipient's check. Bank A now only has $20 of central bank money on its books.
 
Bank B is now in the same situation as Bank A started with, except it has a deposit of $80 of central bank money instead of $100. Similar to Bank A, Bank B sets aside 20 percent of that $80, or $16, as reserves and lends out the remaining $64, creating $64 of IOUs to its depositors.  As the process continues, more commercial bank money is created.  To simplify the table, a different bank is used for each deposit. In the real world, the money a bank lends may end up in the same bank so it then has more money to lend out.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table Sources: <ref>Table created with the OpenOffice.org Calc spreadsheet program using data and information from the references listed.</ref><ref name="mdc">Federal Reserve Education - How does the Fed Create Money? http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/fed101_html/policy/money_print.htm
:See the link to "The Principle of Multiple Deposit Creation" pdf document towards bottom of page.</ref><ref name="nyfed">An explanation of how it works from the New York Regional Reserve Bank of the US Federal Reserve system.  Scroll down to the "Reserve Requirements and Money Creation" section. Here is what it says:
:"Reserve requirements affect the potential of the banking system to create transaction deposits. If the reserve requirement is 10%, for example, a bank that receives a $100 deposit may lend out $90 of that deposit. If the borrower then writes a check to someone who deposits the $90, the bank receiving that deposit can lend out $81. As the process continues, the banking system can expand the initial deposit of $100 into a maximum of $1,000 of money ($100+$90+81+$72.90+...=$1,000). In contrast, with a 20% reserve requirement, the banking system would be able to expand the initial $100 deposit into a maximum of $500 ($100+$80+$64+$51.20+...=$500). Thus, higher reserve requirements should result in reduced money creation and, in turn, in reduced economic activity."
The link to this page is: http://www.newyorkfed.org/aboutthefed/fedpoint/fed45.html</ref><ref name="bis"/>
! Individual Bank
! Amount Deposited
! Lent Out
! Reserves
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | A
| bgcolor="#00AA00" align="CENTER" | 100
| align="CENTER" | 80
| align="CENTER" | 20
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | B
| align="CENTER" | 80
| align="CENTER" | 64
| align="CENTER" | 16
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | C
| align="CENTER" | 64
| align="CENTER" | 51.20
| align="CENTER" | 12.80
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | D
| align="CENTER" | 51.20
| align="CENTER" | 40.96
| align="CENTER" | 10.24
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | E
| align="CENTER" | 40.96
| align="CENTER" | 32.77
| align="CENTER" | 8.19
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | F
| align="CENTER" | 32.77
| align="CENTER" | 26.21
| align="CENTER" | 6.55
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | G
| align="CENTER" | 26.21
| align="CENTER" | 20.97
| align="CENTER" | 5.24
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | H
| align="CENTER" | 20.97
| align="CENTER" | 16.78
| align="CENTER" | 4.19
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | I
| align="CENTER" | 16.78
| align="CENTER" | 13.42
| align="CENTER" | 3.36
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | J
| align="CENTER" | 13.42
| align="CENTER" | 10.74
| align="CENTER" | 2.68
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | K
| bgcolor="#FF0000" align="CENTER" | 10.74
| align="CENTER" | <br />
| align="CENTER" | <br />
|-
| height="32" align="CENTER" | <br />
| align="CENTER" | <br />
| align="CENTER" | <br />
| align="CENTER" | '''Total Reserves:'''
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | <br />
| align="CENTER" | <br />
| align="CENTER" | <br />
| bgcolor="#FF0000" align="CENTER" | 89.26
|-
| <br />
| align="CENTER" | '''Total Amount Deposited:'''
| align="CENTER" | '''Total Amount Lent Out:'''
| align="CENTER" | '''Total Reserves + Last Amount Deposited:'''
|-
| height="16" align="CENTER" | <br />
| bgcolor="#99CCFF" align="CENTER" | 457.05
| bgcolor="#99CCFF" align="CENTER" | 357.05
| bgcolor="#00AA00" align="CENTER" | 100
|-
| height="16" align="LEFT" | <br />
| align="LEFT" | <br />
| align="LEFT" | <br />
| align="LEFT" | <br />
|-
| <br />
| align="CENTER" | '''Commercial Bank Money<BR>Created + Central Bank Money:'''
| align="CENTER" | '''Commercial Bank Money Created:'''
| align="CENTER" | '''Central Bank Money:'''
|-
| height="16" align="LEFT" | <br />
| bgcolor="#99CCFF" align="CENTER" | 457.05
| bgcolor="#99CCFF" align="CENTER" | 357.05
| bgcolor="#00AA00" align="CENTER" | 100
|}
 
[[Image:Fractional reserve banking 20percent 100base.gif|thumb|360px|right|The expansion of $100 of central bank money through fractional-reserve lending with a 20% reserve rate. $400 of commercial bank money is created virtually through loans.]]
Although no new money was physically created in addition to the initial $100 deposit, new commercial bank money is created through loans. The 2 boxes marked in red show the location of the original $100 deposit throughout the entire process. The total reserves plus the last deposit (or last loan, whichever is last) will always equal the original amount, which in this case is $100. As this process continues, more commercial bank money is created. The amounts in each step decrease towards a limit.  If a graph is made showing the accumulation of deposits, one can see that the graph is curved and approaches a limit.  This limit is the maximum amount of money that can be created with a given reserve rate.  When the reserve rate is 20%, as in the example above, the maximum amount of total deposits that can be created is $500 and the maximum amount of commercial bank money that can be created is $400.
 
For an individual bank, the deposit is considered a '''liability''' whereas the loan it gives out and the reserves are considered '''assets'''. The deposit will always be equal to the loan plus the reserve, since the loan and reserve are created from the deposit. This is the basis for a bank's '''balance sheet'''.
 
The creation and destruction of commercial bank money occurs through this process.  Whether it is created or destroyed depends on what direction the process moves. When loans are given out, the process moves from the top down and money is created. When loans are paid back, the process moves from the bottom to the top and commercial bank money is canceled out, effectively erasing it from existence.
 
This table gives an outline of the makeup of [[money supply|money supplies worldwide]]. Most of the money in any given money supply consists of commercial bank money.<ref name="bis"/> The value of commercial bank money comes from the fact that it can be exchanged at a bank for central bank money.<ref name="bis"/><ref name="ecb"/>
 
This is a general outline of how it works.  The actual increase in the money supply through this process may be lower, as (at each step) banks may choose to hold reserves in excess of the statutory minimum, borrowers may let some funds sit idle, and some borrowers may choose to hold cash, and there may be delays or frictions in the process.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=I-49pxHxMh8C&pg=PA303&dq=deposit+reserves&lr=&sig=hMQtESrWP6IBRYiiaZgKwIoDWVk#PPA295,M1 William MacEachern, Macroeconomics: A Contemporary Introduction, p. 295</ref>  It may also be higher if the reserve requirement is lower or if there are no reserve requirements<ref>[http://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/reservereq.htm FRB: Monetary Policy, Reserve Requirements<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref>. Government regulations may also be used to limit the money creation process by preventing banks from giving out loans even though the reserve requirements have been fulfilled.<ref>ebook: The Federal Reserve - Purposes and Functions:http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pf.htm
:see pages 13 and 14 of the pdf version for information on government regulations and supervision over banks</ref>
 
====Money multiplier====
 
[[Image:Fractional-reserve banking with varying reserve requirements.gif|thumb|right|360px|The expansion of $100 through fractional-reserve banking with varying reserve requirements. Each curve approaches a limit. This limit is the value that the '''money multiplier''' calculates.]]
The most common mechanism used to measure this increase in the money supply is typically called the  '''money multiplier'''. It calculates the maximum amount of money that an initial deposit can be expanded to with a given reserve ratio.
 
=====Formula=====
The money multiplier, ''m'', is the inverse of the reserve requirement, ''R'':<ref>http://www.mhhe.com/economics/mcconnell15e/graphics/mcconnell15eco/common/dothemath/moneymultiplier.html</ref>
:<math>m=\frac1R</math>
 
'''Example'''
 
For example, with the reserve ratio of 20 percent, this reserve ratio, ''R'', can also be expressed as a fraction:
:<math>R=\tfrac15</math>
So then the money multiplier, ''m'', will be calculated as:
:<math>m=1/\tfrac15=5</math>
This number is multiplied by the initial deposit to show the maximum amount of money it can be expanded to.
 
===Reserve requirements===
The [[reserve requirement]]s are intended to prevent banks from:
# generating too much money by making too many loans against the narrow money deposit base;
# having a shortage of cash when large deposits are withdrawn (although the reserve is a legal minimum, it is understood that in a crisis or bank run, reserves may be made available on a temporary basis).
 
The money creation process is affected by the currency drain ratio (the propensity of the public to hold banknotes rather than deposit them with a commercial bank), and the safety reserve ratio ([[excess reserves]] beyond the legal requirement that commercial banks voluntarily hold&mdash;usually a small amount). Data for "excess" reserves and vault cash are published regularly by the Federal Reserve in the United States.<ref>http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h3/Current/ Federal Reserve Board, "AGGREGATE RESERVES OF DEPOSITORY INSTITUTIONS AND THE MONETARY BASE" (Updated weekly).</ref> In practice, the actual money multiplier varies over time, and may be substantially lower than the theoretical maximum.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=FdrbugYfKNwC&pg=PA169&lpg=PA169&dq=united+states+money+multiplier&source=web&ots=C_Hw1u82xe&sig=m7g0bMz167DijFsOCbn5f4aWAOU#PPA170,M1 Bruce Champ & Scott Freeman, Modeling Monetary Economies, p. 170 (Figure 9.1).</ref>
 
===Financial ratios===
In addition to reserve requirements, there are other [[financial ratio]]s that affect how many loans a bank can fund. The [[capital ratio]] is one type of ratio. At [[Reserve requirement#Reserve ratios|zero-reserve banking]] this is the way to prevent infinite lending.
 
==Money supplies around the world==
{{main|Money supply|Inflation}}
Fractional-reserve banking determines the relationship between the amount of '''central bank money''' (currency) in the official money supply statistics and the total money supply.  Most of the money in these systems is '''commercial bank money''' . Fractional reserve banking involves the issuance and creation of commercial bank money, which increases the money supply through the [[deposit creation multiplier]]. The issue of money through the banking system is a mechanism of monetary transmission, which a [[central bank]] can influence indirectly by raising or lowering [[interest rate]]s (although banking regulations may also be adjusted to influence the money supply, depending on the circumstances).
[[Image:Components of the United States money supply2.svg|thumb|none|500px|Components of US money supply (currency, [[Money_supply#Convention|M1, M2, and M3]]) since 1959. In January 2007, the amount of '''central bank money''' was $750.5 billion while the amount of '''commercial bank money''' (in the M2 supply) was $6.33 trillion. M1 is currency plus demand deposits; M2 is M1 plus time deposits, savings deposits, and some money-market funds; and M3 is M2 plus large time deposits and other forms of money.{{Clarifyme|date=October 2008}}<!-- this, and [[Money supply]], still needs improving: what is large and what is not, and what is "other larger liquid assets." -->]]
[[Image:Euro money supply Sept 1998 - Oct 2007.jpg|thumb|none|500px|Components of the euro money supply 1998-2007]]
 
==Regulation==
 
Because the nature of fractional-reserve banking involves the possibility of [[bank run]]s, [[central bank]]s have been created throughout the world to address these problems.<ref name="paf">The Federal Reserve in Plain English - An easy-to-read guide to the structure and functions of the Federal Reserve System.  See page 5 of the document for the purposes and functions:  http://www.frbsf.org/publications/education/plainenglish/index.html</ref><ref name="rbievolution">Reserve Bank of India - Report on Currency and Finance 2004-05 (See page 71 of the full report or just download the section ''Functional Evolution of Central Banking''): http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AnnualPublications.aspx?head=Report%20on%20Currency%20and%20Finance&fromdate=03/17/06&todate=03/19/06
:The monopoly power to issue currency is delegated to a central bank in full or sometimes in part. The practice regarding the currency issue is governed more by convention than by any particular theory. It is well known that the basic concept of currency evolved in order to facilitate exchange. The primitive currency note was in reality a promissory note to pay back to its bearer the original precious metals. With greater acceptability of these promissory notes, these began to move across the country and the banks that issued the promissory notes soon learnt that they could issue more receipts than the gold reserves held by them. '''This led to the evolution of the fractional reserve system'''. It also led to repeated bank failures and brought forth the need to have an independent authority to act as lender-of-the-last-resort. Even after the emergence of central banks, the concerned governments continued to decide asset backing for issue of coins and notes. The asset backing took various forms including gold coins, bullion, foreign exchange reserves and foreign securities. With the emergence of a fractional reserve system, this reserve backing (gold, currency assets, etc.) came down to a fraction of total currency put in circulation.</ref>
 
====Central banks====
{{main|Central bank}}
Government controls and [[bank regulation]]s related to fractional-reserve banking have generally been used to impose restrictive requirements on note issue and deposit taking on the one hand, and to provide relief from bankruptcy and creditor claims, and/or protect creditors with government funds, when banks defaulted on the other hand. Such measures have included:
# Minimum [[Reserve requirement|required reserve ratio]]s (RRRs)
# Minimum [[capital ratio]]s
# Government bond deposit requirements for note issue
# 100% Marginal Reserve requirements for note issue, such as the [[Bank Charter Act 1844]] (UK)
# Sanction on bank defaults and protection from creditors for many months or even years, and
# Central bank support for distressed banks, and government guarantee funds for notes and deposits, both to counteract bank runs and to protect bank creditors.
 
===Liquidity and capital management for a bank===
{{main|Capital requirement|Market liquidity}}
To avoid defaulting on its obligations, the bank must maintain a minimal reserve ratio that it fixes in accordance with, notably, regulations and its liabilities. In practice this means that the bank sets a reserve ratio target and responds when the actual ratio falls below the target. Such response can be, for instance:
#Selling or redeeming other assets, or [[securitization]] of illiquid assets,
#Restricting investment in new loans,
#Borrowing funds (whether repayable on demand or at a fixed maturity),
#Issuing additional [[Capital requirement#Regulatory capital|capital instruments]], or
#Reducing [[dividends]].
 
Because different funding options have different costs, and differ in reliability, banks maintain a stock of low cost and reliable sources of liquidity such as:
#Demand deposits with other banks
#High quality marketable debt securities
#Committed lines of credit with other banks
 
As with reserves, other sources of liquidity are managed with targets.
 
The ability of the bank to borrow money reliably and economically is crucial, which is why confidence in the bank's creditworthiness is important to its liquidity. This means that the bank needs to maintain adequate capitalisation and to effectively control its exposures to risk in order to continue its operations. If creditors doubt the bank's assets are worth more than its liabilities, all demand creditors have an incentive to demand payment immediately, a situation known as a '''run on the bank'''.
 
Contemporary bank management methods for liquidity are based on [[maturity analysis]] of all the bank's assets and liabilities (off balance sheet exposures may also be included). Assets and liabilities are put into residual contractual maturity buckets such as 'on demand', 'less than 1 month', '2-3 months' etc. These residual contractual maturities may be adjusted to account for expected counter party behaviour such as early loan repayments due to borrowers refinancing and expected renewals of term deposits to give forecast cash flows. This analysis highlights any large future net outflows of cash and enables the bank to respond before they occur. Scenario analysis may also be conducted, depicting scenarios including stress scenarios such as a bank-specific crisis.
 
===Risk and prudential regulation===
 
In a fractional-reserve banking system, in the event of a [[bank run]], the demand depositors and note holders would attempt to withdraw more money than the bank has in reserves, causing the bank to suffer a liquidity crisis and, ultimately, to perhaps default. In the event of a default, the bank would need to liquidate assets and the creditors of the bank would suffer a loss if the proceeds were insufficient to pay its liabilities. Since public deposits are payable on demand, liquidation may require selling assets quickly and potentially in large enough quantities to affect the price of those assets. An otherwise solvent bank (whose assets are worth more than its liabilities) may be made insolvent by a bank run. This problem potentially exists for any corporation with debt or liabilities, but is more critical for banks as they rely upon public deposits (which may be redeemable upon demand).
 
Although an initial analysis of a bank run and default points to the bank's inability to liquidate or sell assets (i.e. because the fraction of assets not held in the form of liquid reserves are held in less liquid investments such as loans), a more full analysis indicates that depositors will cause a bank run only when they have a genuine fear of loss of capital, and that banks with a strong risk adjusted capital ratio should be able to liquidate assets and obtain other sources of finance to avoid default. For this reason, fractional-reserve banks have every reason to maintain their liquidity, even at the cost of selling assets at heavy discounts and obtaining finance at high cost, during a bank run (to avoid a total loss for the contributors of the bank's capital, the shareholders).
 
Many governments have enforced or established [[deposit insurance]] systems in order to protect depositors from the event of bank defaults and to help maintain public confidence in the fractional-reserve system.
 
Responses to the problem of financial risk described above include:
#Proponents of prudential regulation, such as minimum capital ratios, minimum reserve ratios, central bank or other regulatory supervision, and compulsory note and deposit insurance, (see Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking below);
#Proponents of free banking, who believe that banking should be open to [[free entry]] and competition, and that the self-interest of debtors, creditors and shareholders should result in effective risk management; and,
#Withdrawal restrictions: some bank accounts may place a limit on daily cash withdrawals and may require a notice period for very large withdrawals. Banking laws in some countries may allow restrictions to be placed on withdrawals under certain circumstances, although these restrictions may rarely, if ever, be used;
#Opponents of fractional reserve banking who insist that notes and demand deposits be 100% reserved.
 
===Example of a bank balance sheet and financial ratios===
An example of fractional reserve banking, and the calculation of the '''reserve ratio''' is shown in the balance sheet below:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=4 | Example 2: ANZ National Bank Limited Balance Sheet as at 30 September 2007{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
|-
|ASSETS
|NZ$m
|LIABILITIES
|NZ$m
|-
|Cash
|201
|Demand Deposits
|25482
|-
|Balance with Central Bank
|2809
|Term Deposits and other borrowings
|35231
|-
|Other Liquid Assets
|1797
|Due to Other Financial Institutions
|3170
|-
|Due from other Financial Institutions
|3563
|Derivative financial instruments
|4924
|-
|Trading Securities
|1887
|Payables and other liabilities
|1351
|-
|Derivative financial instruments
|4771
|Provisions
|165
|-
|Available for sale assets
|48
|Bonds and Notes
|14607
|-
|Net loans and advances
|87878
|Related Party Funding
|2775
|-
|Shares in controlled entities
|206
|[subordinated] Loan Capital
|2062
|-
|Current Tax Assets
|112
|Total Liabilities
|99084
|-
|Other assets
|1045
|Share Capital
|5943
|-
|Deferred Tax Assets
|11
|[revaluation] Reserves
|83
|-
|Premises and Equipment
|232
|Retained profits
|2667
|-
|Goodwill and other intangibles
|3297
|Total Equity
|8703
|-
|Total Assets
|107787
|Total Liabilities plus Net Worth
|107787
|}
 
In this example the (legal tender) cash held by the bank is $201m and the demand liabilities of the bank are $25482m, for a (legal tender) cash reserve ratio of 0.79%.
 
====Other financial ratios====
The key [[financial ratio]] used to analyze fractional-reserve banks is the [[cash reserve ratio]], which is the ratio of cash reserves to demand deposits and notes. However, other important financial ratios are also used to analyze the bank's liquidity, financial strength, profitability etc.
 
For example the ANZ National Bank Limited balance sheet above gives the following financial ratios:
# The (legal tender) cash reserve ratio is $201m/$25482m, i.e. 0.79%.
# The central bank notes/balances reserve ratio is $3010m/$25482m, i.e. 11.81%.
# The liquid assets reserve ratio is ($201m+$2809m+$1797m)/$25482m, i.e. 18.86%.
# The equity capital ratio is $8703m/107787m, i.e. 8.07%.
# The tangible equity ratio is ($8703m-$3297m)/107787m, i.e. 5.02%
# The total capital ratio is ($8703m+$2062m)/$107787m, i.e. 9.99%.
 
Clearly, then, it is very important how the term 'reserves' is defined for calculating the reserve ratio, and different definitions give different results. Other important financial ratios may require analysis of disclosures in other parts of the bank's financial statements. In particular, for [[liquidity risk]], disclosures are incorporated into a note to the financial statements that provides maturity analysis of the bank's assets and liabilities and an explanation of how the bank manages its liquidity.
 
====How the example bank manages its liquidity====
{{see also|Duration gap}}
The ANZ National Bank Limited explains its methods as:{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
{{cquote2|Liquidity risk is the risk that the Banking Group will encounter difficulties in meeting commitments associated with its financial liabilities, e.g. overnight deposits, current accounts, and maturing deposits; and future commitments e.g. loan draw-downs and guarantees. The Banking Group manages its exposure to liquidity risk by maintaining sufficient liquid funds to meet its commitments based on historical and forecast cash flow requirements.}}
 
{{cquote2|The following maturity analysis of assets and liabilities has been prepared on the basis of the remaining period to contractual maturity as at the balance date. The majority of longer term loans and advances are housing loans, which are likely to be repaid earlier than their contractual terms. Deposits include substantial customer deposits that are repayable on demand. However, historical experience has shown such balances provide a stable source of long term funding for the Banking Group. When managing liquidity risks, the Banking Group adjusts this contractual profile for expected customer behaviour.}}
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=7 | Example 2: ANZ National Bank Limited Maturity Analysis of Assets and Liabilities as at 30 September 2007{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
|-
|
|Total carrying value
|Less than 3 months
|3-12 months
|1-5 years
|Beyond 5 years
|No Specified Maturity
|-
|'''Assets'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Liquid Assets
|4807
|4807
|
|
|
|
|-
|Due from other financial institutions
|3563
|2650
|440
|187
|286
|
|-
|Derivative Financial Instruments
|4711
|
|
|
|
|4711
|-
|Assets available for sale
|48
|33
|1
|13
|
|1
|-
|Net loans and advances
|87878
|9276
|9906
|24142
|44905
|-
|Other Assets
|4903
|970
|179
|
|
|3754
|-
|'''Total Assets'''
|'''107787'''
|'''18394'''
|'''10922'''
|'''25013'''
|'''45343'''
|'''8115'''
|-
|'''Liabilities'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Due to other financial institutions
|3170
|2356
|405
|32
|377
|
|-
|Deposits and other borrowings
|70030
|53059
|14726
|2245
|
|
|-
|Derivative financial instruments
|4932
|
|
|
|
|4932
|-
|Other liabilities
|1516
|1315
|96
|32
|60
|13
|-
|Bonds and notes
|14607
|672
|4341
|9594
|
|
|-
|Related party funding
|2275
|2275
|
|
|
|
|-
|Loan capital
|2062
|
|100
|1653
|309
|
|-
|'''Total liabilities'''
|'''99084'''
|'''60177'''
|'''19668'''
|'''13556'''
|'''746'''
|'''4937'''
|-
|Net liquidity gap
|8703
|(41783)
|(8746)
|11457
|44597
|3178
|-
|'''Net liquidity gap - cumulative'''
|'''8703'''
|'''(41783)'''
|'''(50529)'''
|'''(39072)'''
|'''5525'''
|'''8703'''
|}
 
==Criticism==
{{main|Criticism of fractional-reserve banking}}
The primary criticisms relate to the potential fragility of bank [[market liquidity|liquidity]] in a fractional reserve banking environment, the financial risk of [[bank run]]s that depositors bear when depositing [[money]] with banks, and the impact that demand deposits have on the stock of money, and on [[inflation]] (that is, the implicit debasement of the currency and its associated impact on the exchange rate). An alternative to fractional reserve banking is making the practice illegal and classifying the practice as a form of [[embezzlement]], only permitting [[full-reserve banking]].<ref>[http://www.mises.org/Books/mysteryofbanking.pdf Murray Rothbard, ''The Mystery of Banking'']</ref> With full-reserve banking, some [[monetary reform]]ers as such as [[Stephen Zarlenga]] of the [[American Monetary Institute]], support the concurrent issuance of debt-free [[fiat currency]] from the [[Treasury]], while others such as Congressman [[Ron Paul]] and the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]] call for a commodity currency such as was possible under the [[Gold Standard]].<ref>Stephen A. Zarlenga, ''The Lost Science of Money'' AMI (2002)</ref><ref>[http://www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2003/cr090503.htm Paper Money and Tyranny, Ron Paul]</ref><ref>[http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul125.html Fiat Paper Money, Ron Paul]</ref>
 
===Exacerbation of the business cycle===
{{main|Austrian Business Cycle Theory}}
[[Austrian School]] economists claim that fractional-reserve banking, by expanding the [[money supply]], will lower the interest rates compared to a full-reserve banking system. They argue that this will affect the role of the interest rate as the price of investment capital, guiding investment decisions. In their view, the natural (free of government influence) interest rate reflects the actual [[time preference]] of lenders and borrowers. Government's monopolistic control of the [[money supply]] through [[central bank]]s and regulations insuring fractional-reserve banking activities disturbs this equilibrium such that the interest rate no longer reflects the real supply of and demand for investment capital. Austrian School economists conclude that, if the interest rate is artificially low, then the demand for loans will be higher than the actual supply of willing lenders, and if the interest rate is artificially high, the opposite situation will occur. This misinformation leads investors to misallocate capital, borrowing and investing either too much or too little in long-term projects. Periodic recessions, then, are seen as necessary "corrections" following periods of [[fiat money|fiat credit]] expansion, when unprofitable investments stimulated by fiat credit creation are liquidated, freeing capital for new sustainable investment. One of the proponents of aspects of the business cycle theory, Friedrich von Hayek, was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Economics]],<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/press.html The Prize in Economics 1974 - Press Release<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> but the theory is not generally accepted by Keynesian economists as an adequate refutation of Keynesian economic theory.<ref>http://www.slate.com/id/9593 Paul Krugman, "The Hangover Theory", Slate.com, says the Austrian Theory of the business cycle is "about as worthy of serious study as the phlogiston theory of fire".</ref> A few Austrian School economists, such as [[Pascal Salin]], also suggest that a [[full-reserve banking]] system should not be enforced legally and dispute [[Murray Rothbard]]'s characterization of fractional-reserve banking as a simple form of recursive [[embezzlement]], and rather advocate the abolition of central banking and suggest that [[free banking]] replace the current system.
 
===Effects of an increased money supply===
Fractional reserve banking involves the issuance and creation of commercial bank money, which increases the money supply on an exponential basis.  According to the [[quantity theory of money]], this increase in the [[money supply]] leads to more money "chasing" the same amount of goods, which leads to [[inflation]].<ref>Charles T. Hatch, ''Inflationary Deception'' [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/hatch.pdf]</ref>  Most [[monetarists]] and [[Austrian economist]]s, and indeed economists in general, believe that the exchange rate or purchasing power of the monetary unit is governed by the quantity of money, including [[Demand account|demand deposits]] and notes, and therefore view fractional reserve banking as the main cause of [[inflation]].<ref>Ludwig von Mises, ''The Theory of Money and Credit'', ISBN 0-913966-70-3[http://mises.org/books/Theory_Money_Credit/Contents.aspx] See also: Jesus Huerta de Soto, ''Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles'', ISBN 0-945466-39-4 [http://mises.org/books/desoto.pdf]</ref>
 
Some quantity theorists who criticize fractional reserve banking support minimum reserve ratios or other government controls on the quantity of money created by commercial banks.  Some support a [[gold standard]] or [[silver standard]] to restrain "unfettered", "speculative" fractional-reserve banking activities.<ref>Hans-Hermann Hoppe, ''The Devolution of Money and Credit'' [http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/RAE7_2_3.pdf]</ref><ref>Andrew Dickinson White, ''Fiat Money in France'' [http://mises.org/books/inflationinfrance.pdf]</ref><ref>[http://news.goldseek.com/GoldSeek/1192819378.php Mike Hewitt, The Forgotten War]</ref>  Fractional reserve currency has also been characterized as a hybrid of receipt currency and [[fiat currency]], and a form of currency that will eventually become [[fiat currency]].
 
Mathematicians would point out that compounding interest upon interest produces [[exponential growth]]. System analysts would see that borrowing from Peter to pay Paul is the mechanism that chases [[money]] as [[interest]] to pay off [[credit]].
 
==See also==
* [[Bimetallism]]
* [[Bretton Woods system]]
* [[Credit money]]
* [[Criticism of fractional-reserve banking]]
* [[Digital gold currency]]
* [[Fiat currency]]
* [[Free banking]]
* [[Full-reserve banking]]
* [[Gold standard]]
* [[Islamic banking]]
* [[Money supply]]
* [[Money creation]]
* [[Monetary reform]]
* [[Seignorage]]
* [[Usury]]
* [[List of economics topics]]
* [[List of finance topics]]
* [[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]]
* [[Call Report]]
 
==Further reading==
* [[Jesus Huerta de Soto|Huerta de Soto, J.]] (2006), ''Money, Bank Credit and Economic Cycles'', Ludwig von Mises Institute
* Meigs, A.J. (1962), ''Free reserves and the money supply'', Chicago, University of Chicago, 1962.
* Crick, W.F. (1927), The genesis of bank deposits, ''Economica'', vol 7, 1927, pp 191-202.
* Philips, C.A. (1921), ''Bank Credit'', New York, Macmillan, chapters 1-4, 1921,
* Thomson, P. (1956), Variations on a theme by Philips, ''American Economic Review'' vol 46, December 1956, pp. 965-970.
* Parliament of Tasmania, Monetary System, Report of Select Committee, With Minutes of Proceedings, 1935.
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
==External links==
* [http://www.mises.org/mysteryofbanking/mysteryofbanking.pdf Rothbard, M. N. (1983) The Mystery of Banking, Richardson & Snyder, 1983, pp 87-110]
* [http://ideas.repec.org/p/lev/wrkpap/77.html Narrow banking]
* [http://www.unimaas.nl/media/um-layout/fdewb/opmaak.htm?http://www.fdewb.unimaas.nl/algec/block/framespages/1203/Seignorage.htm  Seignorage and inflation tax]
* [http://i29.tinypic.com/11tl9vs.png Schematic diagram to explain the fractional-reserve process]
* [http://www.islamic-finance.com/item1_f.htm  Fractional reserve banking and usury]
* [http://www.mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae1_3_7.pdf Free banking and fractional reserves: a comment (Pascal Salin)]
* [http://www.novapoly.com/articles/finance/fractional-reserve-banking-model/ Simple Fractional Reserve Banking Model]
 
 
<!-- was this referencing anything? noting out in case it was just miscoded. can be but back easily w/o reversion
 
<ref name="rbievolution">Reserve Bank of India - Functional Evolution of Central Banking:  http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rbiadmin/Scripts/PublicationReportDetails.aspx?UrlPage=ReportonCurrencyandFinance&ID=454
:The monopoly power to issue currency is delegated to a central bank in full or sometimes in part. The practice regarding the currency issue is governed more by convention than by any particular theory. It is well known that the basic concept of currency evolved in order to facilitate exchange. The primitive currency note was in reality a promissory note to pay back to its bearer the original precious metals. With greater acceptability of these promissory notes, these began to move across the country and the banks that issued the promissory notes soon learnt that they could issue more receipts than the gold reserves held by them. This led to the evolution of the fractional reserve system. It also led to repeated bank failures and brought forth the need to have an independent authority to act as lender-of-the-last-resort. Even after the emergence of central banks, the concerned governments continued to decide asset backing for issue of coins and notes. The asset backing took various forms including gold coins, bullion, foreign exchange reserves and foreign securities. With the emergence of a fractional reserve system, this reserve backing (gold, currency assets, etc.) came down to a fraction of total currency put in circulation.</ref>
 
-->

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